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These are nodes characterized by mobility, large storage, and renewable power and by the ability to communicate with the sensor nodes as well as with the sinks wirelessly Most importantly, MULEs movements cannot be predicted in advance and are considered completely random (uncontrolled mobility) Examples of MULE nodes are (a) animals roaming in a given area (as in an environmental monitoring application [11]) and (b) vehicles traveling in a city or university campus Finally, the bottom tier is comprised of a possibly large number or resource-constrained static sensor nodes that can communicate with a MULE that is passing by Communication in the MULE architecture is single-hop: A node stores the sensed data until a MULE passes by Once the MULE arrives, the node transmits all the stored packets to the MULE When the MULE passes by the sink, it transmits to it all the packets it has collected.

Clear advantages of the MULEs approach to data gathering and delivery in wireless sensor networking include the following r Robustness No node depends on any single MULE Any of the roaming MULEs would do If one of the MULEs fails, a node can still count on another MULE to pick up its packets r Lower Complexity The one-hop nature of the sensor-to-MULE communication allows very simple nodal protocol stack Unsophisticated MAC is often enough to guarantee safe transfer of data packets from their source to the passing MULE r Decreased Energy Consumption The typical overhead associated with multihop ad hoc routing is not present in the MULE system This overhead is oftentimes the major culprit of energy consumption in WSNs However, the ip side of this quite simple and effective system presents nonnegligible drawbacks.

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The rst that comes to mind is the average latency incurred by the packets from the time they are created to when they are delivered to the sink Given the serendipitous nature of the MULEs movements, there is no guarantee on deterministic delay bounds It is not possible to surely state when and where a MULE will show up close to a sensor or to the sink Therefore, a packet can sit in a sensor queue, or in the queue of a MULE for quite a long time, which imposes very high overall sensor-to-sink latency The uncontrolled MULE mobility has also a detrimental effect on the packet delivery ratio; that is, the ratio between all packets.

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that are created in the network over those that are successfully delivered to the sink Sensor nodes, having limited storage, can buffer only a limited amount of packets If the inter-arrival time of a MULE in the radio vicinity of a sensor is too large, chances are that the sensor is forced to discard all the packets in excess of its buffer size This forces down the amount and type of applications that could use the MULE architecture for data gathering and dissemination Only applications that are delay-tolerant can endure the possibly very high latencies imposed by the MULE system Recent studies have shown that it is possible to mitigate the drawbacks of the MULE architecture by having the relay movement guided by the network itself that is, by controlling the mobility of the MULEs One of the rst attempts is described by Kansal et al [32].

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As mentioned earlier, this work has quite an experimental avor and is concerned with a network where one MULE (a mobile robot) travels along a straight trail up and down the sensor node deployment area to collect data Variation in the speed of the MULE is determined by the network load: The robot will go slower if more data are to be transmitted by the nearby sensors, but will go faster otherwise Since the MULE s route is always the same straight line, it is highly likely that some sensors are not able to transmit their data to the MULE directly For this reason the solution proposed in reference 32 organizes the network operation into two parts.

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The rst, named the network algorithm, takes care of how the sensor nodes interact with each other so that packets from those nodes that are not suf ciently close to the passing MULE are delivered to it by nodes that are close The second part speci es how the MULE moves, and it is called the motion control algorithm Here is a description of the two parts The Network algorithm de nes the way in which those nodes that cannot directly transmit to the sink nd data routes to send their packets via intermediate nodes The network algorithm is performed in three steps: initialization, local multihop, and data collection..

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